Listing Requirements Mechanisms Of Offering And Underpricing Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 12 Words: 3580 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? In the recent last two decades, IPOs (Initial Public Offering) have many developments in the Global IPO Market. In the global context my study is focused on the; Listing Requirements, Mechanisms of Offering and Underpricing in the global IPO market. In the late 1990s growth of internet froth has also play an explosive role toward the IPOs outperformance globally. LISTING REQUIREMENTS 3.1 BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS OF LISTING YOUR COMPANY Going public is not an easy task. In deciding whether to seek a listing, a company should consider the alternative financing needs available and the benefits versus the drawbacks of listings. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Listing Requirements Mechanisms Of Offering And Underpricing Finance Essay" essay for you Create order Benefits There are many advantages that accrue to companies that attain a public listing of their shares. Some of the key considerations and benefits are: Creating a market for the companys shares; Enhancing the status and financial standing of the company; Increasing public awareness and public interest in the company and its products; Providing the company with an opportunity to implement share option schemes for their employees; Accessing to additional fund raising in the future by means of new issues of shares or other securities; Facilitating acquisition opportunities by use of the companys shares; and Offering existing shareholders a ready means of realising their investments. Drawbacks While there are benefits to going public, it also means additional obligations and reporting requirements on the companies and its directors: Increasing accountability to public shareholders Need to maintain dividend and profit growth trends Becoming more vulnerable to an unwelcome takeover Need to observe and adhere strictly to the rules and regulations by governing bodies Increasing costs in complying with higher level of reporting requirements Relinquishing some control of the company following the public offering Suffering a loss of privacy as a result of media interest As the owner or major shareholder of a private company, it is important to outweigh the benefits and costs of listing in the light of the plans and goals that have been set for the company. Discussions with lawyers, independent accountants and other professional advisors will also provide you with better considerations. 3.2 The Current stock exchange listing process A request for a stock exchange listing must be made on the basis of an introduction prospectus whose contents are subject to regulation and which is generally filed a few months (120 days on average according to Schuster (2003)) before the admission date. In general the Investment Bank as called Underwriter is engaged in development of Admission Statement and as in charge of the underwriting and floatation process. Many underwriters or financial institutions submit their proposal to an IPO then the IPO choose the underwriter, this is called beauty contest. The fee for the investment bankers is called gross spread and averages 7% of the issue size (Chen and Ritter (2000)). The lead underwriter makes a syndicate (i.e.) group of bank of several banks and financial institutions. The lead underwriter is primary responsible for the IPO implementation while other member undertake underwriting or placement of functions. To enter into underwriter syndicate individual banks submit their f irms value, issue price and the demand for issuer share as well as the cost of the issue. The lead underwriter select the members after evaluation of firms value, issue price and demand for issuer share as well as the cost of the issue, this selection process is also called beauty contest. In order to compile the IPO prospectus, lawyers, together with the underwriting bank, conduct due carefulness, that is an examination of the company regarding its legal, financial, and commercial aspects. The legal due carefulness includes an examination of the companys major contracts, liabilities, patents and other legal facts. The commercial due carefulness contains an analysis of the issuing companys fields of business, market positions, development strategies, human resources, management, etc. The Financial due carefulness entails financial statements, auditors reports for cases in which audited accounts are required, investment planning etc. While due carefulness is exclusively for intern al use, it serves as a basis for the offering prospectus, which, at the minimum, contains information on the shares to be admitted, general information about the issuer and associated companies, a description of the issuers business activities, a presentation of the issuers net assets, financial position and results of operations. The actual minimum content of the admission document and listing requirements are usually defined by the regulatory body of the primary market and differ from country to country. The next step of the floatation process is to obtain the approval of the admission authority, i.e. the market supervisor or the exchange itself or both. Lastly, the initial pricing and placement of the shares are organised either by the underwriter or in co-ordination with the exchange, depending on the institutional setting. Primary Market The primary market is that part of the capital markets that deals with the issue of new securities. Companies, governments or public sector institutions can obtain funding through the sale of a new stock or bond issue. This is typically done through a syndicate of securities dealers. The process of selling new issues to investors is called underwriting. In the case of a new stock issue, this sale is an initial public offering (IPO). Dealers earn a commission that is built into the price of the security offering, though it can be found in the prospectus. A primary market creates long term instruments through which corporate entities borrow from capital market. Features of primary markets are: This is the market for new long term equity capital. The primary market is the market where the securities are sold for the first time. Therefore it is also called the new issue market (NIM). In a primary issue, the securities are issued by the company directly to investors. The com pany receives the money and issues new security certificates to the investors. Primary issues are used by companies for the purpose of setting up new business or for expanding or modernizing the existing business. The primary market performs the crucial function of facilitating capital formation in the economy. The new issue market does not include certain other sources of new long term external finance, such as loans from financial institutions. Borrowers in the new issue market may be raising capital for converting private capital into public capital; this is known as going public. The financial assets sold can only be redeemed by the original holder. Secondary Market A market in which an investor purchases a security from another investor rather than the issuer, subsequent to the original issuance in the primary market is also called aftermarket. Secondary market refers to the market where trading of already existing securities take place. The secondary market is often referred to as dealer market or an auction market. Examples of an auction market is the stock exchange whereas an OTC or over the counter exemplifies a dealer market. if an individual had purchased bonds or any other investment instruments from the primary market a year back and the individual now wants to avail of the principal amount the bonds may be sold off in secondary market. In the event when the price of the bonds rise, the individual intending to dispose off the bonds needs to do it at a discounted rate. On the other hand, if the prices of bonds increase, the individual selling the shares will be benefited and may sell it at a premium rate. 3.3 A Comparison of Listing Requirements on Across Global Stock Exchanges In principle, every stock exchange have two segment in regulated market and every company has also choice to choose the market according to there size of capital and with the other fulfillment listing requirements on each market (i.e.) Primary, Secondary. On primary market large companies lists its share to become an IPO and on secondary market small and medium sized companies lists its shares. Another New Market is also found on the stock exchanges but this type of market is found in some countries of the world However, a few exchanges make exceptions to this rule. First, the Stockholm stock exchange (OMX, Sweden), the Vienna stock exchange (VSE, Austria) and the Warsaw stock exchange (WSE, Poland) never opened a New Market, and the Swiss exchange (SWX) and Deutsche Bà ¶rse recently closed their New Markets. Second, the LSE and Euronext Amsterdam do not have a specific market segment for the listing of medium and small capitalizations. Now Mian markets of accept all small and med ium size firms for listing it share for primary or secondary market. The choices of listing on main market are more stringent than primary market accordingly listing costs, capitalization requirements and size of firm. New markets are introduced in 1990s for young and growth companies. The Table-1 report the listing requirements of IPOs on all market segments on all of our 15 countries of the world. 3.3.1 Listing Requirements on Primary Market Primary Market is characterized by almost two common listing requirements especially in minimum public offer of share 25% and accounting record history IPOS Minimum capitalization requirement for listing on Primary Market is same in Pakistan PKR 200 million and in Hong Kong HK $ 200 million but in all of other countries, and in India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Portugal, Italy, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, America, United States, Egypt requirements are differ from each other except Switzerland (SWX) has no requirement for listing primary market.. Public Free Float for an IPO listing on primary is same in nine countries Pakistan, India, Hong Kong, Portugal, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, United Kingdom, New Zealand and in all of other countries Bangladesh, Indonesia, Australia, United States and in Egypt stock exchanges public free float requirement is differ from one another. Finally, the audited accounts requirement on Hong Kong, Portugal, Germany, Italy, Switzerland , United Kingdom, New Zealand Indonesia, Australia, United States and Egypt primary market required 3 prior years financial statements except Pakistan, India, Bangladesh primary market required 5 prior years audited financial statements for list of an IPO. A few of countries primary market not required audited accounts. 3.3.2 Listing Requirements of Secondary Market Secondary or aftermarket listing requirements are less stringent in respect of market capitalization, public offering, free float and provision of financial statements. In most secondary markets market capitalization is about 25% of the minimum market capitalization of main market requirement, some countries markets waived off the entire listing requirement either minimum market capitalization, public issue, public free float and have no prior years profits stability, Hong Kong (HKEX) have no secondary market listing requirements because HKEX perform the both primary and secondary market functions. Finally, An IPOs listing requirement for provision of accounting history is also less stringent than primary market. Pakistan (KSE), India (NSE), Bangladesh (DSE) for secondary market listing requirement is 5 prior years audited accounts, Indonesia, Australia secondary market listing requirement is 3 prior years audited accounts, Portugal (Euronext), Switzerland (SWX), Egypt (EGX) markets 2 prior year audited accounts and Germany and Italy secondary market required 1 prior year audited account but the Italy secondary market requirement is 1 prior year audited accounts along with 2 year financial statements. Some countries markets New Zealand (NZSX), Hong Kong (HKEX), United States (NSYE) and America (AMEX) having no listing requirements but the main market is done both the primary and secondary market functions, once an IPO listed on primary market they have no need to list on secondary market. Table-1 Comparison of listing requirements Global on Exchanges Country Exchange Admission Authority Main Market Parallel Market Pakistan Karachi Stock Exchange (KSE) Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan (SECP) minimum paid-up capital is Rs.200 million. Public issue which is subscribed by not less than 500 applications. profitable operational record of at least one year 25 copies of audited annual accounts of the company for the last 5 years and its latest half yearly and quarterly accounts, if any or for a shorter period if five years of the Commencement of business is not completed. Prime standard Same as General Accounting Standards and IFRs. The minimum paid up capital of the company is PKR 10 million. The minimum public offering is PKR 5 million or 25% of the capital, whichever is higher. At the time of listing, the break-up value of the ordinary shares of the company, duly certified by a Chartered Accountant / Auditor shall not be less than its face value. Audited annual accounts of the company for the last 5 years and its latest half yearly and quarterly accounts Prime standard Same as General Accounting Standards and IFRs. India National Stock Exchange (NSE) SEBI a) The paid up equity capital of the applicant shall not be less than Rs. 10 crores and the capitalisation of the applicants equity shall not be less than Rs. 25 crores. Atleast three years track record Audited Account at least prior to 5 years. Prime Standards International Accounting Standards (IASs) and International Financial Reporting (IFRs) Bangla-desh DSE SEC minimum paid-up capital is Taka Twenty million. public issue which is subscribed by not less than 400 applicants. Audited Financial Statements for the last five years Prime Standrad Bangladesh Accounting Standards (BASs) and Bangladesh Financial Reporting. Standards (BFRSs). Prime Standrad Indian Accounting Standards converged with IFRSs minimum paid up capital of Tk. 100 (one hundred) million shall have no accumulated loss commercial operation for at least immediate last five years Audited Financial Statements for the last five years Prime Standrad Bangladesh Accounting Standards (BASs) and Bangladesh Financial Reporting. Standards (BFRSs). Indonesia Indonesia Stock Exchange the company must have at least an amount of Rp 100,000,000,000 (one hundred billion rupiah) as Net Tangible Asset The amount of shares owned by the minority shareholders after public offering is at least 100,000,000 (a hundred million) shares or 35% of paid up capital (depends on which one is smaller) the last three years Financial Reports Prime Standards Indonesian finance accountancy standards convergence (SAK) to International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS Net Tangible Asset of at least Rp 5,000,000,000 (five billion rupiah). latest financial year of an Audited Financial Statement which covers at least 12 (twelve) months and the latest interim Audited Financial Statement (if any) obtain an Unqualified Opinion . the last three years Financial Reports Indonesian finance accountancy standards convergence (SAK) to International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS Hong Kong HKEX SGX Securities Futures Commission (SFC) HKSE (sub-sidiary of HKEX) Main Board Minimum Market Capitalisation HK$200 million Market Capitalisation of Public Float HK$50 million Public Float At least 25% of the issuers total issued share capital. Where the issuer has one class of securities or more, the total securities of the issuer held by the public at the time of listing must be at least 25% of the issuers tota l issued share capital. However, the class of securities for which listing is sought must not be less that 15% of the issuers total issued share capital, having an expected market capitalisation at the time of listing of not less than HK$50 million Spread of Shareholders for issuers qualified for listing under: the profit test or the market capitalization / revenue/cashflow test: 300 shareholders the market capitalization / revenue test: 1,000 shareholders trading record period of at least  3 financial years Prime Standard Hong Kong Financial Reporting Standards or International Financial Reporting Standards or US GAAP under some circumstances No Listing Requirements for secondary market Portugal Euronext CMVM Main Market Market capitalisation EUR 2.5 millions Total number of shares 500,000 Number of shares distributed to the public 25% Filed audited accounts over a period of 3 year prior to the date of the listing Second Market Closed in 2005 Market capitalisation EUR 625,000 Number of shares distributed to the public 10% Filed audited accounts over a period of 2 year prior to the date of the listing Germany Deutsche Bà ¶rse Frankfurt Stock Exchange Official Market General Standard Market value EUR 1.25 millions Free float 25% Filed audited accounts over a period of 3 years prior to the date of the listing Financial reporting in accordance with German standards Prime Standard Same as General Standard Financial reporting in accordance with U.S. GAAP and IFRS Regulated Market General Standard Number of shares distributed to the public 10,000 3 years of existence Filed audited accounts over a period of 1 year prior to the date of the listing Financial reporting in accordance with German standards Italy Borsa Italiana CONSOB and Borsa Italiana Borsa (MTA) Blue Chips Market capitalisation EUR 800 millions Number of shares distributed to the public 25% 3 years of accounting records Filed audited accounts over a period of 1 year prior to the date of the listing Ordinary Market capitalisation EUR 20 millions and EUR 800 millions Number of shares distributed to the public 25% 3 years of accounting records Filed audited accounts over a period of 1 year prior to the date of the listing Star Market capitalisation EUR 20 millions and EUR 800 millions Number of shares distributed to the public 35% for newly listed companies (20% for transferred companies) 3 years of accounting records Filed audited accounts over a period of 1 year prior to the date of the listing Mercato Expandi Market capitalisation EUR 1 million Number of shares distributed to the public 10% 2 years of accounting records Filed audited accounts over a period of 1 year prior to the date of the listing Turnover EUR 750,000 Last net earnings EUR 100,000 Financial debt / consolidated gross operating margin 4 Switzer-land Swiss Exchange (SWX) SWX Main Market Capital resources CHF 25 millions No requirement on market capitalisation Number of shares distributed to the public 25% and CHF 25 millions Filed audited accounts over a period of 3 years prior to the date of the listing (possible exceptions) Local Caps Capital resources CHF 2.5 millions No requirement on market value Filed audited accounts over a period of 2 years prior to the date of the listing Number of shares distributed to the public 20% and CHF 5 millions United Kingdom LSE FSA (UKLA) LSE Main market Market value GBP 700,000 Number of shares distributed to the public 25% Filed audited accounts over a period of 3 years ending no later than 6 months prior to the date of the listing Financial reporting in accordance with UK GAAP, U.S. GAAP and IFRS No Secondary market requirement Australia ASX ASIC ASX At least $ 2,000 capital excluding restricted securities and at least 500 holder for these capital The issue or sale price of securities for which entity seeks quotation (except options) at least 20 cent and in case of employees incentives scheme issued or sold less than 20 cent. Profit of the entitys main business for last three financial year must have $1 million, in case of consolidated profit must have exceed $ 400,000 upto admission date for last 12 monts Last three years audited financial statements. There is no need to minimum holders At least $ 10 million net tangible assets Last three years audited financial statements. New zealand NZSX NZSX Securities and exchange commi-ssion New Zealand At least minimum capital $ 5 million At least 500 members of the public or at least 25%. copies of the last five years annual reports Prime Standard Financial reporting according to International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRs) and International Accounting Standards. Secondary market listing requirement are waived off by the New Zealand Stock exchange because both primary and secondary markets are regulated by NZSX. America AMEX Securities and Exchange Commi-ssion SEC And Financial Industry regulatory Authority (FINRA) Market Capitalization N/A Market value of public float $ 3 million Public Float 800/500,000 Shareholders equity $ 4 million Pre-tax income $ 750,000 Operating history N/A United States NYSE SEC And FINRA Market Capitalization $150 million Market Value of Publicly Held Shares $ 45 million Public Round-lot Holders   400 Publicly Held Shares 1,100,000 Prime Standards U.S GAAP used for the Financial Statement. Market Value of Publicly Held Shares Public Round-lot Holders 400 Publicly Held Shares 1,100,000  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€š Egypt The Egyptian Stock Exchange EGX Egyptian Capital Market Authority (ECMA) Official Market The volume of nominal shares presented for public offering should not be less than 30% of the companys total shares. issued capital should not be less than L.E. 20 million or its equivalent paid in total The number of issued shares that need to be listed should not be less than two million shares. The number of subscribers in shares offered for public subscription should not be less than 150 shareholders, even if they are non Egyptians. The net profits before taxes for the last fiscal year preceding the listing application should not be less than 5% of the paid-in capital. Financial Statements for preceding three years. Prime standards International Accounting Standards (IAS) Egyptian Accounting Standards (EAS) Non-official Market Securities presented for public subscription or offering should not be less than 10% of the total of issued securities The number of shares that need to be listed should not be less than 1,000,000 shares The number of shareholders at the securities presented for public or private offering should not be less than fifty Financial Statements at least last 2 years MECHANISMS OF OFFERING 4.1 Introduction There are three common methods of IPOs offering globally 1)- Fixed price offering, 2)- Auction Method, 3)- Book Building Method. The oldest offering method is fixed price offering method then the auction method become popular and now the book building method become most popular globally IPOs. There are many factor that have less benefited for IPOs, under the fixed price offering method investors purchase securities at fixed price offered by the investor, the investor cannot get information about IPO before investing and there are fifty fifty chance of under-subscription or over-subscription of an IPO. Secondly, the auction mechanism for IPO is also look like the fixed price method but the investor cannot get the information before investment in an IPO and it has also fifty fifty chances of under or over-subscription. Under the auction method IPO are less underpriced. Finally, the Book Building method in become popular in late 1990s 4.2 Fixed Price Of fering 4.5 Comparison of other methods and Book Building Methods

The Family Adjustment And Adaptation Response Model

To date, an abundance of research has provided evidence that stressful situations and circumstances in a family are associated with youth behavior problems (Brakefield, Wilson, Donenberg, 2012; Conger et al., 2002; Elkington, Bauermeister, Zimmerman, 2011; Hammack, Richards, Luo, Edlynn, Roy, 2004; Nebbitt, Tirmazi, Lombe, Cryer-Coupet, French, 2014). This association is not only empirically supported, but theoretically supported through the Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response model, which postulates that family demands (i.e. potential stressors placed upon one or more family members) interact with family capabilities (i.e. perceived physical and psychological resources; coping strategies) (Patterson, 1988, 2002). These two†¦show more content†¦These studies have focused only on single or dual stressors, such as risky sexual behavior and substance use by caregivers, substance use and maternal incarceration, or maternal incarceration by itself (Brakefield et al., 20 12; Nebbitt et al., 2014; Ruiz Kopak, 2014). However, research has indicated that the co-occurrence of stressors is more greatly intertwined than has been shown thus far in the literature on parental stress and youth behavior problems. Specifically, potential stressors including mental health problems, a history of detention, and adult substance use, which have been shown to deleteriously impact levels of familial stress, have a high likelihood of co-occurrence (Mukku, Benson, Alam, Richie, Bailey, 2012). Importantly, a recently study analyzing parental stress via a combination of caregiver substance use, mental health problems, and adult incarceration showed that higher parental stress was associated with greater rates of youth delinquency and substance use among African American youth (Voisin et al., 2016). While this an important finding, more research is needed to better illuminate the pathways that mediate direct relationship between parental distress and youth delinquency an d substance use, which is the primary aim of the current study. 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The Powerful Nations of Imperialists Free Essays

Imperialism is the practice by which powerful nations or peoples seek to extend and maintain control or influence over weaker nations or peoples. By the 1800†³s, the Western powers had advantages in this process. They led the world in technological advances, giving them a dominance when conquering other countries. We will write a custom essay sample on The Powerful Nations of Imperialists or any similar topic only for you Order Now The European Imperialists made attempts to conquer China and Japan. In this process, they succeeded by influencing Japan greatly. However, they were not as successful with China. At the end of the eighteenth century, China†s goods were much desired by Britain. However, the Chinese saw Europeans as savages and did not want to trade with them. During trade, there was an imbalance in China†s favor, because the Europeans were forced to buy Chinese goods using silver. The Western Imperialists began to grow opium poppies from in India, and then smuggle them into China. China soon became addicted to the drug and spent most of it†s money on the purchase of it from the Europeans and Americans. This shifted the balance of power to be in Europe†s favor. In the early 1800†³s, Japan had blocked off all trade from other countries. Foreign whaling ships could not even reload or repair their ships in Japan territory. This offended many other countries. In 1852, Matthew Perry was sent to Japan to negotiate open trade. Japan felt threatened by the United States, and gave in to their demands. Japan was frightened by their stipulations, and immediately began to reform. They developed a new education system that was similar to America and Europe†s. They also developed a Western style judiciary system. Japan and China reacted differently to the reforms of Imperialism. When put under pressure, Japan succumbed to the power of Western Imperialist ideas. Conversely, China, resisted for a long time. As a result, Japan had more technology, while China was unenlightened of the new advances. Japan also gained more respect from other countries, that China did not have. In the long run, Japan gained more by yielding to the Historically, states have been motivated to pursue imperialism for a variety of reasons, which may be classified broadly as economic, political, and ideological. The imperialism of China and Japan in the nineteenth century helped shape the way the countries are today. Japan†s culture, education, government, and other issues are based on the influences of America and Europe from years ago. How to cite The Powerful Nations of Imperialists, Papers

Decision-Making Process Paper free essay sample

Decision-Making Process Paper One of the decision l had to make was relocating to the US from London. Before l made the change to move here l had come here a couple of times for a visit and the first time l came here l did not like and couple not wait to go back home but then while l was there and back at work l started missing the fun l had here and the fact that it was a different feeling and a different weather, the store are different life a was a lot different from living on London. When l came here the second time for another visit l then fell in love with the city and l started thinking about l might want to move here and live here as well, l thought about where l was going to stay but that was not a problem, my sister was here and that’s who l stayed with whenever l come over and l had a some to stay if and when l want to come At the end of my visit l start thinking l really don’t want to go back and was starting to miss the city and the way thing are here so on the plan ride back home l made up my mind that l was going to relocate here from London, so when l got home and started making plans to move here started giving my things to some friends, l moved out of where l was staying and moved in with a friend for a couple of months, l was a single man and had no one else to talk to about moving here, but l did talk to my mother about my decision and she said if that’s what l want to do then that’s fine as long as l am happy doing tha t she is happy as well and that was all l needed to hear from the one person that matters the most to me. We will write a custom essay sample on Decision-Making Process Paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page My decision process making process was similar to the one Anne Mulcahy made when she took over at Xerox in order for them to remain in business and stop the down slid they were going and make a better decision and get them back on track she had to make some changes she was making good decisions to make the company better and l have to make that decision in order for me to make a different life for me in another country and make a better life for me l was in a place that l was not happy with and need to make a change and that was a big change. My decision would not have been different if l had used the same one I the text because reading the text seems to be the same one l did, we all have to make a change and l made a change for the better and looking back l will not change anything and the decision l made is just like the one Anne Mulcahy made in the text as a manager to make things better and grow as well. Reference Decision-Making Process Paper http://www. academon. com/Business-Plan-Decision-Making-Process/57000 retrieved July 22, 2011 Decision Making http://www. time-management-guide. com/decision-making-skills. html retrieved July 22, 2011

Country Is Morally Superior To City Essays - Virtue,

Country Is Morally Superior To City Traditionally, the country is seen as being morally superior to the city. The city and the country are used, therefore, to symbolise vice and virtue respectively: the youth of Rome...[are] always amenable to any perverse suggestion who could endure this monstrous city...and swallow his wrath? When shall I see that place in the country, when shall I be free to browse among the writers of old...? The moral decrepitude of the city is seen as a symptom of modern degeneration: an age when each pimp of a husband takes gifts from his own wife's lover The inconvenience of city life: Juvenal documents the physical dangers of life in Rome - The cruel city's myriad perils including the badly made accommodation, the danger of mugging and robbery and the constant house fires, although his contrast of this with the country's squalor and isolation suggests that he doesn't feel the country to be the haven that Horace sees it as. Horace's satires concentrate more on the lack of personal freedom and space in the city-hundreds of items of other people's business buzz in my head and jump round my legs This lack of freedom is personified by the 'Pest' of Horace's Satire 1:9. City life is characterised as unhealthy, with the leaden sirocco, which in the tainted Autumn enriches Our Lady of Funerals and heartburn and ulcers, brought on by overeating The pace of life: A major part of the inconvenience of city life seems to be the pace, which Horace finds almost unendurable: I have to barge through the crowd, bruising the slow-movers. and describes allegorically in his tale of the town and country mice - They dashed in fright down the long hall, their fear turning to utter panic when they heard the sound of mastiffs baying A large part of this problem in Juvenal's view is the problem of traffic and, more specifically, of being a pedestrian in Rome: those behind us tread on our heels. Sharp elbows buffet my ribs, poles poke into me; one lout swings a crossbeam down on my skull In contrast, the country is described by Horace in natural, calm terms: A piece of land...with a garden and, near the house, a spring that never fails, and a bit of wood to round it off. Juvenal also gives a rather idyllic description of country life, with its informality and freedom from fashion - Even the magistrates need no better badge of status than a plain white tunic. Cultural life in Rome: Although the city might be expected to be far more culturally active than the country, the Roman Satirists Bibliography Traditionally, the country is seen as being morally superior to the city. The city and the country are used, therefore, to symbolise vice and virtue respectively: the youth of Rome...[are] always amenable to any perverse suggestion who could endure this monstrous city...and swallow his wrath? When shall I see that place in the country, when shall I be free to browse among the writers of old...? The moral decrepitude of the city is seen as a symptom of modern degeneration: an age when each pimp of a husband takes gifts from his own wife's lover The inconvenience of city life: Juvenal documents the physical dangers of life in Rome - The cruel city's myriad perils including the badly made accommodation, the danger of mugging and robbery and the constant house fires, although his contrast of this with the country's squalor and isolation suggests that he doesn't feel the country to be the haven that Horace sees it as. Horace's satires concentrate more on the lack of personal freedom and space in the city-hundreds of items of other people's business buzz in my head and jump round my legs This lack of freedom is personified by the 'Pest' of Horace's Satire 1:9. City life is characterised as unhealthy, with the leaden sirocco, which in the tainted Autumn enriches Our Lady of Funerals and heartburn and ulcers, brought on by overeating The pace of life: A major part of the inconvenience of city life seems to be the pace, which Horace finds almost unendurable: I have to barge through the crowd, bruising the

Fast Foods Main Detrimental Effects

Fast Foods Main Detrimental Effects Nowadays, it became a commonplace tendency with many people in Western countries to become increasingly concerned about the possible consequences of their exposure to fast food. This state of affairs is perfectly explainable, because during the course of recent decades, the effects of a lengthened consumption of fast food on one’s health remained the subject of a number of heated public debates.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Fast Foods Main Detrimental Effects specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this paper, I will aim to substantiate the validity of an idea that people will indeed benefit from paying a closer attention to what they eat, while specifying what may be considered the main detrimental effects of one’s tendency to go about satisfying its hunger in fast food restaurants. As of today, it became obvious to nutritionists that there is a strong link between fast food and obesity. In its turn, th is can be explained by the fact that the traditional fast food items, such as hamburgers and French fries, contain an excessive amount of saturated fats. According to Stender, Dyerberg and Astrup, â€Å"Fast food from major chains in most countries still contains unacceptably high levels of industrially produced trans-fatty acids (IP-TFA). IP-TFA have powerful biological effects and may contribute to increased weight gain and abdominal obesity† (887). Therefore, there nothing particularly odd about the fact that people who overindulge in eating this type of food are very likely to end up becoming overweight – because saturated fats can never be thoroughly digested by one’s liver, they end up being ‘stored’ in different parts of the concerned individual’s body. Consequently, these ‘stored’ fats cause him or her to grow out of shape. The fact that, as it was mentioned earlier, there is a dialectical link between fast food and obesi ty, explains why the visually observable concentration of overweight individuals appears being particularly high in fast food restaurants. What provides people with an irresistible incentive to eat at fast food restaurant is the fact that, despite being rather unhealthy, fast food tastes good. To make things worse, it now became a widespread marketing practice in fast food restaurants to offer customers a choice to ‘supersize’ their meals. This, of course, cannot result in anything else but in facilitating the ‘epidemic of obesity’, which appears to affect more and more Westerners, as time goes on.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Another well-established effect of people’s overindulgence in eating fast food is the fact it substantially increases their susceptibility to heart attacks. The reason for this is quite apparent – fast food contains huge amounts of cholesterol, which in turn has been proven to cause the clogging of blood vessels. According to Freeman, â€Å"Much fast food is deep-fried in partially hydrogenated oils (or trans fats), which lead to high cholesterol rates and heart attacks† (2225). By being exposed to fast food for a prolonged period, people simply cannot avoid accumulating cholesterol in their veins. The fact that, as of today, many fast food chains offer customers a choice to order meals with the reduced amount of cholesterol in them does not seem to be improving the situation. After all, the foremost incentive that motivates people to consider dining at fast food restaurants is that, while being affordable, fast food meals are also rich in protein. This is the reason why the eating of even a single hamburger can well satisfy one’s hunger. Unfortunately, the fast food items’ richness in protein comes hand in hand with their richness in cholesterol. This is the reason why nutritionists strongly advice people to think twice, before they decide to eat at fast food restaurants. Nevertheless, it would be wrong to suggest that the consumption of fast food is being only capable of affecting people’s health directly. Apparently, this consumption is also being capable of producing a number of negative psychological effects on people’s well-being, as well. For example, there is nothing accidental about the fact that many fast food eaters are also known to lead physically inactive lifestyles, while being addicted to watching TV. As it was pointed out by Jeffery and French, â€Å"Energy intake and percentage of energy from fat are positively associated with TV viewing and fast food eating† (278). This phenomenon can be easily explained. After having eaten a particular protein-rich fast food item, people are able to experience almost an instantaneous bellyfulness. In its turn, this causes them to grow sleepy and lazy – henc e, prompting them to choose in favor of watching TV, as the most appropriate pursuit. While indulging in this specific pursuit, however, people amplify the detrimental effects of their poor eating habits, because their physical inactiveness naturally speeds up the process of trans fats and cholesterol being ‘stored’ in their bodies. As a result, they grow progressively unhealthy.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Fast Foods Main Detrimental Effects specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More There is also another aspect to it – while continuing to inject their organisms with the earlier mentioned harmful substances people become addicted to them. Apparently, people’s exposure to the fast food’s very taste hypertrophies their hedonistic (pleasure-seeking) anxieties, which substantially undermine their ability to face life-challenges in a thoroughly responsible manner. According to Yijun et al., à ¢â‚¬Å"Overeating and obesity may have an acquired drive like drug addiction with respect to motivation and incentive† (133). In other words, it will be appropriate to suggest that people’s prolonged exposure to fast food is being capable of turning them into food-addicts. This is the reason why there is nothing unusual about the sights of individuals ordering multiple hamburgers at fast food restaurants, even though they could well satisfy their hunger with eating only one. Such people’s behavior is nothing but a result of their continually increasing inability to remain in a full control of their animalistic urges. Therefore, it will not be much on an exaggeration, on my part, to suggest that fast food can well prompt its addicts to grow progressively deprived of their basic humanity, while being eventually turned into ‘human-hamburgers’ that can barely walk. I believe that the earlier provided line of argumentation, as to what may be considered fou r detrimental effects of a fast food consumption on people’s health, is being thoroughly consistent with the initial thesis. It is fully understandable, of course, that due to the essence of socio-political dynamics in Western countries, which cause more and more people being unable to afford buying high-quality food, the phenomenon of fast food’s growing popularity is being objectively predetermined. This, however, does not provide them with an excuse to stop paying attention to what they eat, and to grow increasingly addicted to devouring fat-saturated hamburgers and French fries – to say the least. Apparently, in order for individuals to be able to enjoy healthiness, they should not only be in a position to afford buying a high-quality food, but they should also be capable of exercising self-discipline over their hedonistic urges. Bibliography Freeman, Andrea. â€Å"Fast Food: Oppression Through Poor Nutrition.† California  Law Review 95.6 (2007): 22 21-2259. Print. Jeffery, Robert and Simone French. â€Å"Epidemic Obesity in the United States: Are Fast Foods and Television Viewing Contributing?† American Journal of Public Health 88.2 (1998): 277-280. Print.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Stender, Sharon, John Dyerberg and Anthony Astrup. â€Å"Fast Food: Unfriendly and Unhealthy.† International Journal of Obesity 31.6 (2007): 887-890. Print. Yijun, Liu et al. â€Å"Addiction and Obesity: Evidence from Bench to Bedside.†Ã‚  Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 42.2 (2010): 133-145. Print.

Criminal justice system in Australia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Criminal justice system in Australia - Essay Example There are various types of criminal justice systems – the adversarial and the inquisitorial are two of the systems more commonly used by various countries and territories. This paper shall focus on Australia and its adversarial system. It shall discuss the thesis: When all is said and done, the current criminal justice system is about as fair and equitable as we can reasonably expect. This paper is to be analysed based on the Australian justice system as it applies its adversarial system as a fair and equitable tool. Discussion The adversarial criminal system is a common law system of carrying out proceedings where the parties, not the judge, have the task of establishing the issues being disputed and of investigating and further advancing the proceedings (Law Reform Commission, 1999). In contrast, the inquisitorial system is the civil code system where the judge has an important responsibility. The term adversary implies â€Å"opposition.† ... The crucial consideration in this system is the fact that the most number of fair resolutions of crimes are likely to occur with both sides being allowed to argue cases effectively before a fair and impartial jury (Schmalleger, 2007). In effect, it is not up to the prosecution or the defence to establish the guilt of a party, it is up to an impartial party hearing the case. As a result, it can be easily deemed that advocates on either side, arguing their side of the issue before an impartial judge can be considered the best means of achieving justice in the criminal justice system (Schmalleger, 2007). In instances however, when the system is seen as a means of seeking fault in a crime, there must be a thorough awareness of the limitations of this system. When all is said and done, the Australian adversarial criminal justice system is about as fair and as effective as can be reasonably expected. The Australian criminal justice system is fair and effective because the main goal of an a dversary system is to â€Å"prevent private justice by retribution† (Law Reform Commission, 2004, p. 24). The aim of this system is to secure procedural fairness within the society, a fairness which provides both sides of the issue a chance to express their side and be given equal protection by the system. The jury system has always been known as the linchpin of the system because in most of the cases, the judges play an active role, and the jury, a passive role (Associated Content, 2006). This is especially crucial for the defendants who are often defended by overworked and underskilled defenders (Associated Content, 2006). The judge plays an active role because the system has to depend on the ability of the advocates who are representing the

Reading Log Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Reading Log - Essay Example Pickpockets are individuals who are skilled in stealing other people’s sweat. The actions of these individuals are immoral, since they are not in harmony with the laws of ethics that governs relationship of individuals in the society. They vigorously take what does not belong to them, and considers it as theirs. The protagonist in the film Pickpocket is a young a man named Michael. His perceptions towards crime are that individuals possessing high intellectual capacities should not be held accountable for their doings. He takes this theory into practice by snatching wallets from individuals. In the beginning, Michael encounters difficulty in his pick pocketing tendencies as he is constantly arrested by police officers. Moreover, life is unfair to him because he lacks the knack to live luxuriously. He is ashamed of visiting his sick mother in the hospital. Instead, he resorts to develop a love interests on a woman he clearly knows he can not date. The situation gets worse when even the apartment he resides in depicts his deteriorating financial status (Cunneen, 2004, p.73). However, his continuous practice and intelligence in pick pocketing exalts him to a status where he changes his life style. He develops a sense of fashion in his dressing and becomes mildly mannered. These traits make it impossible for outside individuals, and even neighbors to group him as a pickpocket. Michael’s first encounter as a pickpocket was when he stole money from a lady’s handbag at a Paris racetrack. He was propelled to become a mastermind in pickpocket by his own compulsion. The story ends when Michael is torn between making choices. He is locked up in a cell, and the only person who pays him a visit, is his mother. His freedom of choosing between his mother and his habits are limited in the end because he lacks the freedom of choosing, since he is sentenced to prison (Cunneen, 2004, p.71). L’ Argent (â€Å"Money†)

Financial Educational Board Games (Toys and Game Industry) Research Paper

Financial Educational Board Games (Toys and Game Industry) - Research Paper Example 5,856.20M El Segundo,  CA Namco Bandai Holdings Inc. 4,083.77M Tokyo,  Japan Hasbro, Inc. 4,002.16M Pawtucket,  RI LEGO System A/S 2,272.69M Billund,  Ribe (hoovers.com, 2011) Consumers spent 25.1 billion on video games, hardware and accessories in 2010 (Entertainment Software Association, 2011). The best-selling Computer Games are Family and Children’s Games (19.8%), Shooter games (14.4%), Role-Playing games (12.4%). The Best-selling Video Games Genres are Action (30.1%), Sports (11.3), Racing (11.1%), Children and Family Entertainment (9.3%), Shooter 8.7%), Role-Playing (7.8%) (Entertainment Software Association, 2011). The US board games and puzzle market, alone, is estimated to be worth about $400 million, and ?50 million per year in the UK (Maclean, 2009). The toy and game industry in Australia has a revenue of two billion, and annual growth of 3.6% (2006-2011) (ibisworld.com, 2011). Industry Trends â€Å"Going Green† is a current trend in the industry. It involves three aspects. They are: sustainable materials, resource-saving packaging, and content that communicates sustainable action and values through play (nurembergtoyfair.com, 2011). Another industry trend is moving games from the digital realm to physical board game space. A recent example is Mattel’s â€Å"Angry Birds.† Keeping a foot in both digital and physical realms makes good business sense, in the face of increasing competition (Douban, 2011). One of the most potentially profitable trends is the transition to selling products inside virtual worlds. For example, you might go to a virtual pizza shop, in avatar form, and a pizza icon might pop up, enabling the user to order a real pizza, without leaving the virtual environment (boardofinnovation.com, 2009). The diversity of virtual worlds means a huge, untapped potential for a diversity of products. Other trends include pro-social and e-connected, cooperative games; games that can be constructed and reconstruc ted, allowing for continually new play experiences; games that involve action and sensori-motor experience or emphasize speed (a trend reflecting child obesity as a health concern); games that are designed for creative learning (toyassociation.org, 2011). Game Industry Growth and Decline An indicator of demand for toys is the manufacturers' shipments of miscellaneous durable goods, which rose 7.2 percent in the first six months of 2011 compared to the first six months in 2010 (hoovers.com, 2011). Furthermore, toy sales the world over, in 2010, increased 5% over 2009, to $83.3 billion, especially reflecting strong performance in Asia (npd.com, 2011). Fifty percent of global toy sales are accounted for by the top revenue countries: USA, Japan, China, UK, and France. Emerging markets with strong growth are Brazil, Russia, India (npd.com, 2011). The Online Game portion of the industry is growing. Table 2. Annual online game revenue in billions of U.S. dollars from 2006–2011 (Rive llo, 2011) Americans spent more than $3 billion in video game subscription fees last year. A new report by market research firm Pike & Fischer estimates that Americans will spend $5 billion annually by 2015 (boardofinnovation.com, 2009). Board games went through a slump when they had to compete with video and computer games, but now they are making a big comeback, due to the economic crisis (Thai, 2009).

Arthashastra and Its Relevance in Modern Warfare

Arthashastra and Its Relevance in Modern Warfare Arthashastra and its relevance in modern warfare and counterinsurgency/counterterrorism philosophy INTRODUCTION SITUATING THE ARTHASHASTRA Historical Background 1. Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta[5] 2. Artha[8] Arthashastra Overview 3. Written about 300 B.C., Kautilyas work was pitched to teach with the various intricacies of governance and politics to the king.[11] 4. Books of Treatise The Arthashastra is divided into 15 books, 150 chapters, 180 sections and 6,000 slokas.[13] 5. Science of Arthashastra Kautilya believed that a rulers duties included the internal administration of the country, protection of the state from external aggression, maintenance of law and order within the state, and the welfare of the people. New territory had to be acquired by alliance or conquest for the prosperity of the state and also in the political environment existing then, which had many kings, anyone content with his own territory was likely to fall prey to hedgemonistic ambitions of the other. 6. Spectrum of Arthashastra Kautilya argued that a nation could never achieve prosperity under a foreign ruler; indicating that independence was a pre-requisite for prosperity and economic progress. At the macro level, the Arthashastra covers the entire gamut of human society, the establishment and continuance of a nation state, foreign policy, war, civil law and economics. At the other end of the spectrum, the book delves into the building blocks of a society by clearly defining standardised weights[18] 7. National Security Kautilya insisted that all threats to national security must be eliminated at any cost to the state, while no enemy must be privy to the inner machinations and processes of ones own state – Like a tortoise, the king (state) shall draw in any limb of his that is exposed.[19] Internal stability was the harbinger of economic well being. However, to maintain internal and external security, Kautilya proposed a massive network of spies and agents operating within the state and also in surrounding and enemy states. Detailed descriptions of espionage and counter-espionage activities, physical punishments and torture for internal security set this work apart from any other political treatise. 8. The Arthashastra is thus a mixture of both what we applaud today and what we consider to be reprehensible. Kautilya wrote his book about 2300 years ago when extreme forms of governance were commonplace and the primary task of the ruling monarch was primacy of his state and a policy of expansionism. While Kautilya was quite willing to reward those who served the state, he seemed to have an obsession with using the discipline of the laws to make everything in the kingdom just right. In the Arthashastra, everyday life in all its multifarious activities comes in for careful regulation and adjustment, from the cooking pot to the crown.[20] CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem 9. The aim of this paper is to study the teachings of Arthashastra in order to determine its relevance and yield insights into military strategy and warfare with emphasis on counter insurgency and counter terrorism. Hypothesis 10. The concepts of defence and war as enunciated by Kautilya are as relevant in the 21st century as it was in the 3rd century BC. Justification for the Study 11. The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as Science of Politics, Treatise on Polity[23] 12. Two thousand three hundred years ago, Kautilya compiled the Arthashastra and with it he proved to be a kingmaker as he enabled the inception of the Maurya dynasty. The Arthashastra has endured the test of time and it has since withstood the test of credibility. We will be enriching ourselves if we learn and grasp even a fraction of the wisdom that Kautilya embodied. 13. Our ancient scriptures have been neglected and Western principles and teachings propounded in our literature, including military literature due to ignorance of students and insufficient importance by teachers. 14. Kautilyas treatise enraptures in many ways, the complexity of our current world. The problems that existed then, persist in a more widespread and magnified manner in the contemporary world. The principles of Military strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. 15. Study of his military strategy will throw some light on the in-depth knowledge of warfare in ancient India and will provide important lessons for conventional and unconventional warfare in the modern world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its thinkers. The lecture by Dr Gopalji Malviya, sparked the inquisitiveness and determination to study the Arthashastra. Scope 16. The scope of this paper is restricted to the study and analysis of the aspects related to warfare as enunciated by Kautilya. The study does not include his precepts on the social, political and economical structure of an ideal state. Though Kautilya has treated foreign policy as an important part of warfare, only brief mention where necessary would be made. The famous Mandala theory[24] has hence been consciously left out. Also the actual battle fighting and formations described in detail have been omitted to maintain focus on strategy. The study will cover the relevance of Arthashastra and its importance for modern warfare, counter insurgency and counter terrorism. 17. Though a sincere effort has been made to cover the relevance, trying to expound on Kautilyas immense wisdom presents a remarkable challenge. Therefore, throughout this dissertation the work of Kautilya is quoted to speak for itself. Methods of Data Collection 18. There are a number of books written on Arthashastra. Though some books are in Sanskrit and some are literal translations, some books are available in college library on the Arthashastra notably by LN Rangarajan, R Shamashastry, MV Krishna Rao and Roger Boeshe. Some data is also available on the internet and journals. A bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the paper. Likely sources include the following:- (a) Books written by eminent authors as mentioned above. (b) Papers submitted by researchers. (c) Information available over the internet. (d) Discussions with teachers and professors of history. Dr Gopalji Malviya was gracious enough to grant some valuable time for a one on one discussion. His encouragement, advice and passion for the subject made the research meaningful. Organisation of the Dissertation 19. The dissertation is organised into six chapters. Chapters one and two deal with introducing the subject and the methodology of the research. It is proposed to study the subject under the following heads:- (a) Chapter III Principles of military strategy in Arthashastra. (b) Chapter IV Relevance in 21st century conventional warfare. (c) Chapter V Relevance in fourth generation warfare. (d) Chapter VI Conclusion. CHAPTER III PRINCIPLES OF MILITARY STRATEGY IN ARTHASHASTRA 20. Kautilya has enunciated many military strategies in the Arthashastra. Most importantly he does not seem to have made much distinction between military strategy and that of statecraft. He believed that warfare is an extension and an integral part of statecraft.[25] He has covered an array of strategies over a vast canvas from the actual fighting and planning, to training and deceit. Some of these will be discussed in this chapter. Planning a Campaign 21. Kautilyas most striking doctrine is his discussion of planning a campaign –The activity of one setting out on a campaign deals with the factors to be taken into account before the king (state) decides that it is in the states interest to commence the campaign.[26] Kautilya brings out the various facets of planning a campaign. He enunciates eight factors which are to be critically considered for determining whether a campaign would end in success, prior to making preparations for war. The factors that he considered for a successful campaign included Power (military, intellectual and morale), place and time, revolts and the rebellion in the rear, the calculation of losses, expenses and gains and the likely dangers of treachery. Few of the factors are discussed below:- (a) Power . According to Kautilya, the most important factor is of power. Power included the military might, and the economic strength of the adversary, and also the intellectual power, and t the ability of the enemy to carry out a objective analysis and not to be swayed by emotion or opinions. He even lists out the order of the three constituents of power to be Intellectual power, Military might and Enthusiasm and morale in the decreasing order of importance. Kautilya says that though the mightier king may be endowed with better war machinery and that he can buy heroic fighters, the Power of good analysis and judgement (which include intelligence and the knowledge of politics the two eyes of the king) are superior to sheer military strength. The operational fFactor of fForce as spelt out in present day warfare encompasses the tangible (personnel, weapons, mobility, fire power and logistics) and the intangible elements (leadership, morale, discipline, training, doctrine and motivation).)[30] (b) Place/Terrain [34] is still relevant. (c) Time/ Campaigning Season . Kautilya has laid stress on timing[37] The operational factors in modern warfare give serious consideration to the factor of time. Time has further been divided into preparation time, warning time, reaction time, decision cycle time etc. Durations of the campaign and the interval between two consecutive operations should beare kept short to be maintain a high tempo. This is brought out by Kautilya when he recommends that whenever the king is superior, he shall not waste any time and should proceed against the enemy whenever by doing so the enemy can be weakened or crushed. Due to new technologies the pace of thein present day warfare new technologies are enlarging the area of combat is growing and at the same time compressing the time factor is being compressed. Thus tThe critical evaluation of time, and the various weather parameters and advices such as theand terms for planningfor planning a long, medium and short war as given in the Arthashastra remain relevant even today. (d) Troop Mobilisation . He Kautilya lays down the criterias in great detail which are required for mobilising each kind of troops. like Tthe standing army, is to be chosen if the threat is great and from well trained troops, however the territorial army is to be chosen if the enemy is weak. Tthe militia or is to be mobilised if the enemy is weak and it is only a law and order problem. Ffriendly or allied forces. are to be used when the king and the ally have the same objective. Without any remorse he adds that the jungle tribes should be used when there is a gain to the king, whether they win or lose in fighting the enemy – Just as a Chandala stands to benefit when a wild dog fights a wild boar. Combat potential concept in the present day concepts operational art states that combat potential is converted into Combat power by mobilisation of troops and start of conflict.[40]. He was the first Indian statesman to consider the lower castes to fight wars. (e) Other factors . The other factors he discusses in planning include the revolts and the rebellion in the rear, the calculation of losses, expenses and gains and the likely dangers of treachery. Thus Kautilya has also brought out the fact which present day planners also abide by; of not planning or initiating military action without adequate forces and in the presence of unreasonable military or political constraints. Though most planning is valid only till the first contact with the enemy, still a complex almost mathematical analysis of gains and losses was carried out to justify going to war. (f) Power Place Time relation . The relationship of power, place and time to wage a war had various interpretations during that period. However Kautilya has clearly enunciated that though each of these components is important, none is more important than the other and all are interdependent. The fact that Kautilya understood the concept of space-time-force relationship and dynamics is a revelation. He postulated that only when the king finds that he is superior in power space and time shall he proceed against the enemy. Force is important for a campaign; just as the collision of an unbaked mud-vessel with a similar vessel is destructive to both, so war with an equal king brings ruin to bothplace (space) is important as a dog, seated in a convenient place, can drag a crocodile and a crocodile in low ground can drag a dogtime is critical as during the daytime the crow kills the owl and at night the owl the crow.[41]His analysis of Force-Space-Time in the quote shows that the correct forces need to be deployed in the correct terrain at a time of their choosing for maximum effect. The analogy of the crocodile being dragged by a dog would refer to a vastly superior force being inexorably drawn away from their base into an area of operations that is favourable to the smaller enemy (large conventional forces fighting insurgents in urban areas). All the factors listed by Kautilya need to be considered whilst planning a modern day conventional or unconventional campaign. Internal Security 22. Physical Security . The security of own kingdom consisted of physical security and also the capability to prevent treachery, revolts and rebellion.[42] The frontier post and forts (consisting of mountains, rivers, jungle and deserts) provided physical security. The details of fortifications are placed at the Appendix _______. Thus the importance given to internal security was immense. Demobilisation of troops was carried out in times of peace to save money and they were mobilised again for conquests. However the forces guarding the forts, royal property and the kings own guards were never disbanded, thus ensuring the importance of internal security. Besides Kautilya was extremely wary of revolts, rebellion and the ability of spies trying to influence the people by wrong newstreachery. 23. Control Over Army . Various means were utilised by the king to maintain control over his army including the Chiefs of Army such as paying them well, keeping them under surveillance and testing their integrity to prevent any rebellion.. Some of these measures including shrewd and ruthless ones are enumerated below:- (a) Those suspected of treachery were posted to remote areas while their families were kept in the capital as hostages. (e) They were paid well to prevent them from being tempted by bribes by the enemy. (f) They were kept under surveillance of clandestine agents, especially to see that they did not succumb to the instigations of the enemy. (g) Their integrity was tested to weed out the cowardly. Also the (h) Tthe wings of the Army were kept under the control of more than one chief so that mutual fear and suspicion would ensure their loyalty. Imperativeness of Security . Kautilya believed that offensive action is based on defensive power. His insistence of for internal security clearly underlined underlines the fact that before forces are committed to the main task all own vital and vulnerable targets should be secured. In fact he even advices the king to keep the treasury and army under his control. In case of a threat of revolt, Kautilya advices the king,not to remain behind in the capital and to allow his Commander to lead a campaign and to leave it to his Commander and remain behind in the capital, .in case of a threat of revolt. 24. This coupled with the fact that he attached great importance to controlling his army brings out the fact that internal security must be the sound foundation for a successful campaign. 25. Threat of Coup . Kautilya advised the king not to leave military matters entirely to others and be involved in it. He paid great importance to the training of the army and to the loyalty of the soldiers. Towards this he advocated the use of spies especially from threat of a coup. Kautilya recommended that secret agents, prostitutes, artisans and actors as well as elders of the army should ascertain with diligence, the loyalty or disloyalty of soldiers.[43] Types of Warfare 26. According to Kautilya, the king had two main responsibilities which included the protection of own state from external aggression and enlargement of territory by conquest[46] as follows:- (a) Mantrayuddha or War by Counsel . This is the exercise of diplomacy to win wars. This is to be utilised when the king is in a weaker position and engaging in battle would not be wise or beneficial. (b) Prakasayuddha or Open Warfare . This is the form of normal warfare which follows all laid down rules of fighting a battle. Open warfare, Kautilya declared, is most righteous,'[48] This was quite unlike the teachings in the Indian epics which emphasised the Dharmayudha or ethical warfare. (c ) Kutayuddha or C oncealed W arfare . This form of warfare includes psychological warfare and treachery in the enemys camp. Also known as Guerrilla warfare.[49] The Chinese civil war by the Peoples Liberation Army, the Vietcong in the Vietnam war, the Kosovo Liberation Army in Kosovo are examples of using mobile military tactics to defeat a stronger force. and guerrilla warfare. (d) Gudayuddha or Clandestine / Silent War . This type of war is waged by covert means to achieve the objective. It includes means to win without fighting the battle by means such as assassinating the enemy. Also called silent war, it is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in which the king and his ministers—and unknowingly, the people—all act publicly as if they were at peace with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and spreading propaganda and disinformation.[52] Military Organisation 27. The military organisation is covered in great detail in Arthashastra. Maintenance of the states armies, troops and the organisational structure[55] 28. Managing the Army . He further warns against calamities which adversely affect the functioning of the army which include not giving due honours, not paid sufficiently, low in morale etc. Kautilya states that armies should never be abandoned, left leaderless or totally merged into someone elses army.ItThe army should always have adequate reinforcements[56]. He further warns against calamities which adversely affect the functioning of the army. He includes many factors such as not giving due honours, not paid sufficiently, low in morale, an angry army, a dispersed one, having to fight in an unsuitable terrain or season, an army which has been encircled, obstructed or cut off from reinforcements and supplies and most importantly one without leaders. He makes an incisive observation when he states that an unhonoured army, an unpaid army an exhausted army will fight if honoured, paid and allowed to relax respectively but a dishonoured army with resentment in its heart will not do so. He further gives importa nce to leadership qualities by stating that an army repulsed will fight if rallied by heroic men unlike an army abandoned by its chief. This is as true today, even in the age of C4ISR. and where troops or ships are spread across the globe. It is an accepted fact that in the absence of an inspired leader victory goes to the stronger (numerically superior) side. He also adds that even if the army faces extreme reverses like loss of capital or death of a commander it will still fight unless they are cut off from their king and leader. He stated the pre requisite for an effective leader which is true even today that he should keep in mind two fundamental elements, the mission and the people. The king is advised to guard his army against troubles created by the enemy and told to strike at the weak points of the enemys army similar to the critical vulnerabilities in JOPP. Algorithim of Victory. 29. When two kings are at war, he advises his king to sue for peace with a stronger king, accept the peace offer of a equally strong king and to destroy the weaker king.[59] Oligarchies / Coalitions 30. A whole section is dedicated to oligarchies or confederacy. In the present world such a communion is exhibited by coalition forces. While accepting that these coalitions are strong entities he frames various means to fight and put up resistance against them. As an oligarchy is defined as a unassailable cohesive unit, sowing dissension, using deceit, treachery and playing on the differences amongst them has been suggested as measures to defeat them. In the present world, the attempt to break the coalition by Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein is an example of this tactics.[60] Strategies for Weak King 31. Kautilya has written extensively on the response of a weak king when being attacked by a stronger king. When confronted by a superior power Kautilya advices the weak king to find a way to survive to fight another day, preserving his body, not wealth; for, what regret can there be for wealth that is impermanent?[61] Kautilya did not however expect the weak king to give in to the conqueror without a fight and recommended various measures which included use of diplomatic or concealed warfare and instigating a revolt in the enemy camp.As a desperate measure he even advocated a powerful speech offering a mixture of moral exhortation and arguments to be given to the superior king. People and Popular Support 32. Kautilya maintained that people were more important than forts and armies. As he put it, one should only seek a fortress with men.[62] Kautilya urged the king to be popular with the people and to endeavour to secure the welfare of his subjects. The Arthashastra has emphasised on not causing harm even to the subjects of the enemy king. In fact extra ordinary measures are recommended to win over the people of the enemy land. Their customs had to be respected and their gods had to be revered by the new king. After the war, carrying away loot was forbidden. 33. The important six fold foreign policy[63] has been left out due to dissertation restrictions. The gamut of strategies from the planning aspects, the types of war to the very crucial support of the people will be will be contextually examined for their relevance in the next chapters. CHAPTER IV RELEVANCE IN 21 ST CENTURY CONVENTIONAL WARFARE 34. Realist School . In this chapter the present day conventional warfare will be examined as seen through the prism of Kautilya. Kautilya is widely known to have preached the Realist School of thought which advised rulers to maximise power through political rather than military means. He preached that the ends justified the means including the use of ruse, deceit[66] 35. Role and Mission . In an increasingly complex world, the missions of the armed forces are correspondingly more diverse and complex than ever before. In times of peace and tension, the armed forces are a powerful instrument of the nations foreign policy.[67] In times of crisis and conflict, they are the foremost expression of the nations will and intent. Suffice to say that the expectations of a nation from its military are diverse and wide-ranging. Therefore, modern warfare is not restricted to war alone. Rather, they encompass the military, political, economic and the diplomatic aspects. 36. Nature of War . War or conflict has two different characteristics. One, which represents progress and change, and the other, which represents constancy and permanency. On one hand, the dynamics of progress and change depend much upon a commanders imagination, innovativeness, grasp of technology and complexity. While on the other, the Arthashastra is testimony to the constant and unchanging nature of war. Studies of military history show that certain features constantly recur; that certain relations between type of action and success often remain the same; that certain circumstances and moments have time and time again, proved decisive. Past being the prologue of future, underscores the relevance and significance of studies of military history such as propagated by the Arthashastra. Joint Intelligence Preparation of Operational Environment 37. Factor of Space . The relevance and importance of planning in present day warfare is evident by the stress on the use of Appreciation and now on CES and JOPP. The fact that these instruments allow detailed planning to foresee almost every eventuality justifies the shift to newer instruments like JOPP. The identification of the Area of Operations (AO) and the Area of interest (AI) constitute the first steps towards planning the battle space. Detailed analysis is thereafter carried out as also put forth in the Arthashastra on the factor of space. The weather, terrain and geography are given importance besides factors like demography, economy, natural resources and economy. 38. Factor of Time . The factor of time is used to analyse the time factor to own and enemy forces with respect to preparation time, reaction time, transit and deployment time to name a few. As emphasised by Kautilya, one of the most important factors related to time is to determine the duration of the war. Incorrect understanding of this vital factor can have serious repercussions on force planning, doctrine and outcome of war. The 1967 Arab –Israel war was swiftly accomplished in six days, one day longer than that was planned. The factor of time was adequately planned for by the Israeli forces. Another critical factor related to time brought out by Kautilya is the weather. The detailed planning carried out to predict the correct weather during Normandy landing emphasises this fact. Any mistakes would have been catastrophic for over two million allied troops. 39. Factor Force . The factor of force includes all sources of military power. Though military theory cites a force ratio of three to one between attacker and defender, the quality of weapons and intangibles like morale and psychological factors can play a decisive role. Military cohesion or the bonding together of individuals is an important factor as can be seen in the cohesion at unit levels. Sections of the army should consist mostly of persons from the same region, caste or profession. Kautilya was suggesting that men of an army should know one another and that an army of friends fighting side by side is the most difficult to defeat.[68] The factor of force involves identifying and evaluating the enemys forces and its capabilities, limitations, doctrines, techniques and procedures. The relative Combat power and potential is also brought out in this step. 40. Inter dependence of Factors . The interrelation and correlation of the space-time-force as put forth by Kautilya is the essence of the entire step. Thus planning for conventional war has changed little especially with respect to these basic factors. Internal Security 41. Presently, national and international interests have become vulnerable, with no clear indication of how they can best be protected[70] Open War 42. Conventional warfare espouses the use of Open warfare as Kautilya named it. The Arthashastra describes in great detail the standard battle-arrays and its composition, the types of arrays and the reasons for choosing them. Great emphasis is placed on reserves behind every battle-array and this is where the king stations himself. Preference for mountains or forts to station the reserves is shown. Military Organisation 43. The organisation as laid down by Kautilya catered for civil supremacy and ensured effective coordination between the various components of the Army.[73] Economic Pressures 44. While planning an operation and deciding whom to attack Kautilya advices to ensure that the gains outweigh the losses. While discussing gains he talks about the importance of enemys mines, productive forests, elephants, water works and trade routes. Oil is the subject of much dispute today. Oil resources were the bone of contention during wars with Iraq in 1990 and 2003[76] predicts a series of wars between economies that have stepped into the information age (third wave) and those still in the industrial age (second wave). The Gulf War to a great extent proves the theory of Toffler and what Kautilya always believed that wars will occur for economic reasons. Death-Ground Strategy [77] 45. When survival is at stake, the soldiers are strongly motivated as it is a matter of life and death. The Soviets fought in World War II for their survival. Arthashastra addresses this fact when Kautilya advices to let the enemy soldiers know that the defeated soldiers would not face reprisals. After such humanitarian policies toward the defeated populace have become widely known, ordinary enemy soldiers will surrender in great numbers. By contrast, if a king announces that he will massacre every soldier, then all will fight to the death. He added that a broken enemy should not be harassed. Similarly, he advised that to fight with brave men who have given up all hope of life is a rash deed.[78] People Power 46. The support of the population is an essential requirement in the present age for going to war and for supporting its sustenance. Failure or setbacks in war can have a harmful impact on the commitment of the population to back the policy, and drastic action is often required to restore confidence. During the Falklands War, for example, the British Prime Minister, Mrs Thatcher demanded some operational success to offset the impact on public morale and support for the war after the loss of HMS Sheffield to an Argentinean Exocet missile, against better military judgement[79] Decline of Conventional War 47. Conventional wars or Open wars, have become the exception rather than rule after the second world war.[82] Relevance of Kautilya 48. Kautilya in his treatise has already put forth an elaborate and systematic plan of action for conventional war. Studies and analyses of wars tend to deeply influence military thought, doctrines, concepts, war-games and principles of war. As a result, more often than not, strategies and tactics employed in the later wars have been influenced by those employed in the previous ones. Therefore the study of the Arthashastra should be encouraged (to prevent reinventing the wheel) and the planners and tacticians should put into practise the valuable teachings of Arthashastra. CHAPTER V RELEVANCE OF ARTHASHASTRA IN FOURTH GENERATION WARFARE 49. Fourth generation warfare(4GW) . [87] 50. Kautiliyan Insights . The Indian Army and lately the Indian Navy (to some extent) are engaged in an ideology based counter-insurgency and counter-terrorism campaign. In order to succeed, a deep understanding of the historic template and strategic culture of the ene Arthashastra and Its Relevance in Modern Warfare Arthashastra and Its Relevance in Modern Warfare Arthashastra and its relevance in modern warfare and counterinsurgency/counterterrorism philosophy INTRODUCTION SITUATING THE ARTHASHASTRA Historical Background 1. Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta[5] 2. Artha[8] Arthashastra Overview 3. Written about 300 B.C., Kautilyas work was pitched to teach with the various intricacies of governance and politics to the king.[11] 4. Books of Treatise The Arthashastra is divided into 15 books, 150 chapters, 180 sections and 6,000 slokas.[13] 5. Science of Arthashastra Kautilya believed that a rulers duties included the internal administration of the country, protection of the state from external aggression, maintenance of law and order within the state, and the welfare of the people. New territory had to be acquired by alliance or conquest for the prosperity of the state and also in the political environment existing then, which had many kings, anyone content with his own territory was likely to fall prey to hedgemonistic ambitions of the other. 6. Spectrum of Arthashastra Kautilya argued that a nation could never achieve prosperity under a foreign ruler; indicating that independence was a pre-requisite for prosperity and economic progress. At the macro level, the Arthashastra covers the entire gamut of human society, the establishment and continuance of a nation state, foreign policy, war, civil law and economics. At the other end of the spectrum, the book delves into the building blocks of a society by clearly defining standardised weights[18] 7. National Security Kautilya insisted that all threats to national security must be eliminated at any cost to the state, while no enemy must be privy to the inner machinations and processes of ones own state – Like a tortoise, the king (state) shall draw in any limb of his that is exposed.[19] Internal stability was the harbinger of economic well being. However, to maintain internal and external security, Kautilya proposed a massive network of spies and agents operating within the state and also in surrounding and enemy states. Detailed descriptions of espionage and counter-espionage activities, physical punishments and torture for internal security set this work apart from any other political treatise. 8. The Arthashastra is thus a mixture of both what we applaud today and what we consider to be reprehensible. Kautilya wrote his book about 2300 years ago when extreme forms of governance were commonplace and the primary task of the ruling monarch was primacy of his state and a policy of expansionism. While Kautilya was quite willing to reward those who served the state, he seemed to have an obsession with using the discipline of the laws to make everything in the kingdom just right. In the Arthashastra, everyday life in all its multifarious activities comes in for careful regulation and adjustment, from the cooking pot to the crown.[20] CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem 9. The aim of this paper is to study the teachings of Arthashastra in order to determine its relevance and yield insights into military strategy and warfare with emphasis on counter insurgency and counter terrorism. Hypothesis 10. The concepts of defence and war as enunciated by Kautilya are as relevant in the 21st century as it was in the 3rd century BC. Justification for the Study 11. The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as Science of Politics, Treatise on Polity[23] 12. Two thousand three hundred years ago, Kautilya compiled the Arthashastra and with it he proved to be a kingmaker as he enabled the inception of the Maurya dynasty. The Arthashastra has endured the test of time and it has since withstood the test of credibility. We will be enriching ourselves if we learn and grasp even a fraction of the wisdom that Kautilya embodied. 13. Our ancient scriptures have been neglected and Western principles and teachings propounded in our literature, including military literature due to ignorance of students and insufficient importance by teachers. 14. Kautilyas treatise enraptures in many ways, the complexity of our current world. The problems that existed then, persist in a more widespread and magnified manner in the contemporary world. The principles of Military strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. 15. Study of his military strategy will throw some light on the in-depth knowledge of warfare in ancient India and will provide important lessons for conventional and unconventional warfare in the modern world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its thinkers. The lecture by Dr Gopalji Malviya, sparked the inquisitiveness and determination to study the Arthashastra. Scope 16. The scope of this paper is restricted to the study and analysis of the aspects related to warfare as enunciated by Kautilya. The study does not include his precepts on the social, political and economical structure of an ideal state. Though Kautilya has treated foreign policy as an important part of warfare, only brief mention where necessary would be made. The famous Mandala theory[24] has hence been consciously left out. Also the actual battle fighting and formations described in detail have been omitted to maintain focus on strategy. The study will cover the relevance of Arthashastra and its importance for modern warfare, counter insurgency and counter terrorism. 17. Though a sincere effort has been made to cover the relevance, trying to expound on Kautilyas immense wisdom presents a remarkable challenge. Therefore, throughout this dissertation the work of Kautilya is quoted to speak for itself. Methods of Data Collection 18. There are a number of books written on Arthashastra. Though some books are in Sanskrit and some are literal translations, some books are available in college library on the Arthashastra notably by LN Rangarajan, R Shamashastry, MV Krishna Rao and Roger Boeshe. Some data is also available on the internet and journals. A bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the paper. Likely sources include the following:- (a) Books written by eminent authors as mentioned above. (b) Papers submitted by researchers. (c) Information available over the internet. (d) Discussions with teachers and professors of history. Dr Gopalji Malviya was gracious enough to grant some valuable time for a one on one discussion. His encouragement, advice and passion for the subject made the research meaningful. Organisation of the Dissertation 19. The dissertation is organised into six chapters. Chapters one and two deal with introducing the subject and the methodology of the research. It is proposed to study the subject under the following heads:- (a) Chapter III Principles of military strategy in Arthashastra. (b) Chapter IV Relevance in 21st century conventional warfare. (c) Chapter V Relevance in fourth generation warfare. (d) Chapter VI Conclusion. CHAPTER III PRINCIPLES OF MILITARY STRATEGY IN ARTHASHASTRA 20. Kautilya has enunciated many military strategies in the Arthashastra. Most importantly he does not seem to have made much distinction between military strategy and that of statecraft. He believed that warfare is an extension and an integral part of statecraft.[25] He has covered an array of strategies over a vast canvas from the actual fighting and planning, to training and deceit. Some of these will be discussed in this chapter. Planning a Campaign 21. Kautilyas most striking doctrine is his discussion of planning a campaign –The activity of one setting out on a campaign deals with the factors to be taken into account before the king (state) decides that it is in the states interest to commence the campaign.[26] Kautilya brings out the various facets of planning a campaign. He enunciates eight factors which are to be critically considered for determining whether a campaign would end in success, prior to making preparations for war. The factors that he considered for a successful campaign included Power (military, intellectual and morale), place and time, revolts and the rebellion in the rear, the calculation of losses, expenses and gains and the likely dangers of treachery. Few of the factors are discussed below:- (a) Power . According to Kautilya, the most important factor is of power. Power included the military might, and the economic strength of the adversary, and also the intellectual power, and t the ability of the enemy to carry out a objective analysis and not to be swayed by emotion or opinions. He even lists out the order of the three constituents of power to be Intellectual power, Military might and Enthusiasm and morale in the decreasing order of importance. Kautilya says that though the mightier king may be endowed with better war machinery and that he can buy heroic fighters, the Power of good analysis and judgement (which include intelligence and the knowledge of politics the two eyes of the king) are superior to sheer military strength. The operational fFactor of fForce as spelt out in present day warfare encompasses the tangible (personnel, weapons, mobility, fire power and logistics) and the intangible elements (leadership, morale, discipline, training, doctrine and motivation).)[30] (b) Place/Terrain [34] is still relevant. (c) Time/ Campaigning Season . Kautilya has laid stress on timing[37] The operational factors in modern warfare give serious consideration to the factor of time. Time has further been divided into preparation time, warning time, reaction time, decision cycle time etc. Durations of the campaign and the interval between two consecutive operations should beare kept short to be maintain a high tempo. This is brought out by Kautilya when he recommends that whenever the king is superior, he shall not waste any time and should proceed against the enemy whenever by doing so the enemy can be weakened or crushed. Due to new technologies the pace of thein present day warfare new technologies are enlarging the area of combat is growing and at the same time compressing the time factor is being compressed. Thus tThe critical evaluation of time, and the various weather parameters and advices such as theand terms for planningfor planning a long, medium and short war as given in the Arthashastra remain relevant even today. (d) Troop Mobilisation . He Kautilya lays down the criterias in great detail which are required for mobilising each kind of troops. like Tthe standing army, is to be chosen if the threat is great and from well trained troops, however the territorial army is to be chosen if the enemy is weak. Tthe militia or is to be mobilised if the enemy is weak and it is only a law and order problem. Ffriendly or allied forces. are to be used when the king and the ally have the same objective. Without any remorse he adds that the jungle tribes should be used when there is a gain to the king, whether they win or lose in fighting the enemy – Just as a Chandala stands to benefit when a wild dog fights a wild boar. Combat potential concept in the present day concepts operational art states that combat potential is converted into Combat power by mobilisation of troops and start of conflict.[40]. He was the first Indian statesman to consider the lower castes to fight wars. (e) Other factors . The other factors he discusses in planning include the revolts and the rebellion in the rear, the calculation of losses, expenses and gains and the likely dangers of treachery. Thus Kautilya has also brought out the fact which present day planners also abide by; of not planning or initiating military action without adequate forces and in the presence of unreasonable military or political constraints. Though most planning is valid only till the first contact with the enemy, still a complex almost mathematical analysis of gains and losses was carried out to justify going to war. (f) Power Place Time relation . The relationship of power, place and time to wage a war had various interpretations during that period. However Kautilya has clearly enunciated that though each of these components is important, none is more important than the other and all are interdependent. The fact that Kautilya understood the concept of space-time-force relationship and dynamics is a revelation. He postulated that only when the king finds that he is superior in power space and time shall he proceed against the enemy. Force is important for a campaign; just as the collision of an unbaked mud-vessel with a similar vessel is destructive to both, so war with an equal king brings ruin to bothplace (space) is important as a dog, seated in a convenient place, can drag a crocodile and a crocodile in low ground can drag a dogtime is critical as during the daytime the crow kills the owl and at night the owl the crow.[41]His analysis of Force-Space-Time in the quote shows that the correct forces need to be deployed in the correct terrain at a time of their choosing for maximum effect. The analogy of the crocodile being dragged by a dog would refer to a vastly superior force being inexorably drawn away from their base into an area of operations that is favourable to the smaller enemy (large conventional forces fighting insurgents in urban areas). All the factors listed by Kautilya need to be considered whilst planning a modern day conventional or unconventional campaign. Internal Security 22. Physical Security . The security of own kingdom consisted of physical security and also the capability to prevent treachery, revolts and rebellion.[42] The frontier post and forts (consisting of mountains, rivers, jungle and deserts) provided physical security. The details of fortifications are placed at the Appendix _______. Thus the importance given to internal security was immense. Demobilisation of troops was carried out in times of peace to save money and they were mobilised again for conquests. However the forces guarding the forts, royal property and the kings own guards were never disbanded, thus ensuring the importance of internal security. Besides Kautilya was extremely wary of revolts, rebellion and the ability of spies trying to influence the people by wrong newstreachery. 23. Control Over Army . Various means were utilised by the king to maintain control over his army including the Chiefs of Army such as paying them well, keeping them under surveillance and testing their integrity to prevent any rebellion.. Some of these measures including shrewd and ruthless ones are enumerated below:- (a) Those suspected of treachery were posted to remote areas while their families were kept in the capital as hostages. (e) They were paid well to prevent them from being tempted by bribes by the enemy. (f) They were kept under surveillance of clandestine agents, especially to see that they did not succumb to the instigations of the enemy. (g) Their integrity was tested to weed out the cowardly. Also the (h) Tthe wings of the Army were kept under the control of more than one chief so that mutual fear and suspicion would ensure their loyalty. Imperativeness of Security . Kautilya believed that offensive action is based on defensive power. His insistence of for internal security clearly underlined underlines the fact that before forces are committed to the main task all own vital and vulnerable targets should be secured. In fact he even advices the king to keep the treasury and army under his control. In case of a threat of revolt, Kautilya advices the king,not to remain behind in the capital and to allow his Commander to lead a campaign and to leave it to his Commander and remain behind in the capital, .in case of a threat of revolt. 24. This coupled with the fact that he attached great importance to controlling his army brings out the fact that internal security must be the sound foundation for a successful campaign. 25. Threat of Coup . Kautilya advised the king not to leave military matters entirely to others and be involved in it. He paid great importance to the training of the army and to the loyalty of the soldiers. Towards this he advocated the use of spies especially from threat of a coup. Kautilya recommended that secret agents, prostitutes, artisans and actors as well as elders of the army should ascertain with diligence, the loyalty or disloyalty of soldiers.[43] Types of Warfare 26. According to Kautilya, the king had two main responsibilities which included the protection of own state from external aggression and enlargement of territory by conquest[46] as follows:- (a) Mantrayuddha or War by Counsel . This is the exercise of diplomacy to win wars. This is to be utilised when the king is in a weaker position and engaging in battle would not be wise or beneficial. (b) Prakasayuddha or Open Warfare . This is the form of normal warfare which follows all laid down rules of fighting a battle. Open warfare, Kautilya declared, is most righteous,'[48] This was quite unlike the teachings in the Indian epics which emphasised the Dharmayudha or ethical warfare. (c ) Kutayuddha or C oncealed W arfare . This form of warfare includes psychological warfare and treachery in the enemys camp. Also known as Guerrilla warfare.[49] The Chinese civil war by the Peoples Liberation Army, the Vietcong in the Vietnam war, the Kosovo Liberation Army in Kosovo are examples of using mobile military tactics to defeat a stronger force. and guerrilla warfare. (d) Gudayuddha or Clandestine / Silent War . This type of war is waged by covert means to achieve the objective. It includes means to win without fighting the battle by means such as assassinating the enemy. Also called silent war, it is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in which the king and his ministers—and unknowingly, the people—all act publicly as if they were at peace with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and spreading propaganda and disinformation.[52] Military Organisation 27. The military organisation is covered in great detail in Arthashastra. Maintenance of the states armies, troops and the organisational structure[55] 28. Managing the Army . He further warns against calamities which adversely affect the functioning of the army which include not giving due honours, not paid sufficiently, low in morale etc. Kautilya states that armies should never be abandoned, left leaderless or totally merged into someone elses army.ItThe army should always have adequate reinforcements[56]. He further warns against calamities which adversely affect the functioning of the army. He includes many factors such as not giving due honours, not paid sufficiently, low in morale, an angry army, a dispersed one, having to fight in an unsuitable terrain or season, an army which has been encircled, obstructed or cut off from reinforcements and supplies and most importantly one without leaders. He makes an incisive observation when he states that an unhonoured army, an unpaid army an exhausted army will fight if honoured, paid and allowed to relax respectively but a dishonoured army with resentment in its heart will not do so. He further gives importa nce to leadership qualities by stating that an army repulsed will fight if rallied by heroic men unlike an army abandoned by its chief. This is as true today, even in the age of C4ISR. and where troops or ships are spread across the globe. It is an accepted fact that in the absence of an inspired leader victory goes to the stronger (numerically superior) side. He also adds that even if the army faces extreme reverses like loss of capital or death of a commander it will still fight unless they are cut off from their king and leader. He stated the pre requisite for an effective leader which is true even today that he should keep in mind two fundamental elements, the mission and the people. The king is advised to guard his army against troubles created by the enemy and told to strike at the weak points of the enemys army similar to the critical vulnerabilities in JOPP. Algorithim of Victory. 29. When two kings are at war, he advises his king to sue for peace with a stronger king, accept the peace offer of a equally strong king and to destroy the weaker king.[59] Oligarchies / Coalitions 30. A whole section is dedicated to oligarchies or confederacy. In the present world such a communion is exhibited by coalition forces. While accepting that these coalitions are strong entities he frames various means to fight and put up resistance against them. As an oligarchy is defined as a unassailable cohesive unit, sowing dissension, using deceit, treachery and playing on the differences amongst them has been suggested as measures to defeat them. In the present world, the attempt to break the coalition by Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein is an example of this tactics.[60] Strategies for Weak King 31. Kautilya has written extensively on the response of a weak king when being attacked by a stronger king. When confronted by a superior power Kautilya advices the weak king to find a way to survive to fight another day, preserving his body, not wealth; for, what regret can there be for wealth that is impermanent?[61] Kautilya did not however expect the weak king to give in to the conqueror without a fight and recommended various measures which included use of diplomatic or concealed warfare and instigating a revolt in the enemy camp.As a desperate measure he even advocated a powerful speech offering a mixture of moral exhortation and arguments to be given to the superior king. People and Popular Support 32. Kautilya maintained that people were more important than forts and armies. As he put it, one should only seek a fortress with men.[62] Kautilya urged the king to be popular with the people and to endeavour to secure the welfare of his subjects. The Arthashastra has emphasised on not causing harm even to the subjects of the enemy king. In fact extra ordinary measures are recommended to win over the people of the enemy land. Their customs had to be respected and their gods had to be revered by the new king. After the war, carrying away loot was forbidden. 33. The important six fold foreign policy[63] has been left out due to dissertation restrictions. The gamut of strategies from the planning aspects, the types of war to the very crucial support of the people will be will be contextually examined for their relevance in the next chapters. CHAPTER IV RELEVANCE IN 21 ST CENTURY CONVENTIONAL WARFARE 34. Realist School . In this chapter the present day conventional warfare will be examined as seen through the prism of Kautilya. Kautilya is widely known to have preached the Realist School of thought which advised rulers to maximise power through political rather than military means. He preached that the ends justified the means including the use of ruse, deceit[66] 35. Role and Mission . In an increasingly complex world, the missions of the armed forces are correspondingly more diverse and complex than ever before. In times of peace and tension, the armed forces are a powerful instrument of the nations foreign policy.[67] In times of crisis and conflict, they are the foremost expression of the nations will and intent. Suffice to say that the expectations of a nation from its military are diverse and wide-ranging. Therefore, modern warfare is not restricted to war alone. Rather, they encompass the military, political, economic and the diplomatic aspects. 36. Nature of War . War or conflict has two different characteristics. One, which represents progress and change, and the other, which represents constancy and permanency. On one hand, the dynamics of progress and change depend much upon a commanders imagination, innovativeness, grasp of technology and complexity. While on the other, the Arthashastra is testimony to the constant and unchanging nature of war. Studies of military history show that certain features constantly recur; that certain relations between type of action and success often remain the same; that certain circumstances and moments have time and time again, proved decisive. Past being the prologue of future, underscores the relevance and significance of studies of military history such as propagated by the Arthashastra. Joint Intelligence Preparation of Operational Environment 37. Factor of Space . The relevance and importance of planning in present day warfare is evident by the stress on the use of Appreciation and now on CES and JOPP. The fact that these instruments allow detailed planning to foresee almost every eventuality justifies the shift to newer instruments like JOPP. The identification of the Area of Operations (AO) and the Area of interest (AI) constitute the first steps towards planning the battle space. Detailed analysis is thereafter carried out as also put forth in the Arthashastra on the factor of space. The weather, terrain and geography are given importance besides factors like demography, economy, natural resources and economy. 38. Factor of Time . The factor of time is used to analyse the time factor to own and enemy forces with respect to preparation time, reaction time, transit and deployment time to name a few. As emphasised by Kautilya, one of the most important factors related to time is to determine the duration of the war. Incorrect understanding of this vital factor can have serious repercussions on force planning, doctrine and outcome of war. The 1967 Arab –Israel war was swiftly accomplished in six days, one day longer than that was planned. The factor of time was adequately planned for by the Israeli forces. Another critical factor related to time brought out by Kautilya is the weather. The detailed planning carried out to predict the correct weather during Normandy landing emphasises this fact. Any mistakes would have been catastrophic for over two million allied troops. 39. Factor Force . The factor of force includes all sources of military power. Though military theory cites a force ratio of three to one between attacker and defender, the quality of weapons and intangibles like morale and psychological factors can play a decisive role. Military cohesion or the bonding together of individuals is an important factor as can be seen in the cohesion at unit levels. Sections of the army should consist mostly of persons from the same region, caste or profession. Kautilya was suggesting that men of an army should know one another and that an army of friends fighting side by side is the most difficult to defeat.[68] The factor of force involves identifying and evaluating the enemys forces and its capabilities, limitations, doctrines, techniques and procedures. The relative Combat power and potential is also brought out in this step. 40. Inter dependence of Factors . The interrelation and correlation of the space-time-force as put forth by Kautilya is the essence of the entire step. Thus planning for conventional war has changed little especially with respect to these basic factors. Internal Security 41. Presently, national and international interests have become vulnerable, with no clear indication of how they can best be protected[70] Open War 42. Conventional warfare espouses the use of Open warfare as Kautilya named it. The Arthashastra describes in great detail the standard battle-arrays and its composition, the types of arrays and the reasons for choosing them. Great emphasis is placed on reserves behind every battle-array and this is where the king stations himself. Preference for mountains or forts to station the reserves is shown. Military Organisation 43. The organisation as laid down by Kautilya catered for civil supremacy and ensured effective coordination between the various components of the Army.[73] Economic Pressures 44. While planning an operation and deciding whom to attack Kautilya advices to ensure that the gains outweigh the losses. While discussing gains he talks about the importance of enemys mines, productive forests, elephants, water works and trade routes. Oil is the subject of much dispute today. Oil resources were the bone of contention during wars with Iraq in 1990 and 2003[76] predicts a series of wars between economies that have stepped into the information age (third wave) and those still in the industrial age (second wave). The Gulf War to a great extent proves the theory of Toffler and what Kautilya always believed that wars will occur for economic reasons. Death-Ground Strategy [77] 45. When survival is at stake, the soldiers are strongly motivated as it is a matter of life and death. The Soviets fought in World War II for their survival. Arthashastra addresses this fact when Kautilya advices to let the enemy soldiers know that the defeated soldiers would not face reprisals. After such humanitarian policies toward the defeated populace have become widely known, ordinary enemy soldiers will surrender in great numbers. By contrast, if a king announces that he will massacre every soldier, then all will fight to the death. He added that a broken enemy should not be harassed. Similarly, he advised that to fight with brave men who have given up all hope of life is a rash deed.[78] People Power 46. The support of the population is an essential requirement in the present age for going to war and for supporting its sustenance. Failure or setbacks in war can have a harmful impact on the commitment of the population to back the policy, and drastic action is often required to restore confidence. During the Falklands War, for example, the British Prime Minister, Mrs Thatcher demanded some operational success to offset the impact on public morale and support for the war after the loss of HMS Sheffield to an Argentinean Exocet missile, against better military judgement[79] Decline of Conventional War 47. Conventional wars or Open wars, have become the exception rather than rule after the second world war.[82] Relevance of Kautilya 48. Kautilya in his treatise has already put forth an elaborate and systematic plan of action for conventional war. Studies and analyses of wars tend to deeply influence military thought, doctrines, concepts, war-games and principles of war. As a result, more often than not, strategies and tactics employed in the later wars have been influenced by those employed in the previous ones. Therefore the study of the Arthashastra should be encouraged (to prevent reinventing the wheel) and the planners and tacticians should put into practise the valuable teachings of Arthashastra. CHAPTER V RELEVANCE OF ARTHASHASTRA IN FOURTH GENERATION WARFARE 49. Fourth generation warfare(4GW) . [87] 50. Kautiliyan Insights . The Indian Army and lately the Indian Navy (to some extent) are engaged in an ideology based counter-insurgency and counter-terrorism campaign. In order to succeed, a deep understanding of the historic template and strategic culture of the ene